|
== イングランドにおける反逆罪 ==
[[Image:Drawing of William de Marisco.jpg|thumb|300px|As illustrated in [[{{仮リンク|マシュー・パリス|en|Matthew Paris]]'s ''[[}}の『{{仮リンク|クロニカ・マジョラ|en|Chronica Majora]]'', [[William de Marisco]] is drawn to his execution behind a horse.}}』に描かれているように、ウィリアム・デ・マリスコは馬に引き回されて処刑された。]]
During the [[High Middle Ages]], those in England guilty of [[treason]] were punished in a variety of ways, including drawing and hanging. In the 13th century other more severe penalties were introduced, such as disembowelling, burning, beheading, and quartering. The 13th-century English chronicler [[Matthew Paris]] described how in 1238 "a certain man at arms, a man of some education (''armiger literatus'')"<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1949|pp=54–58}}</ref> attempted to kill [[Henry III of England|King Henry III]]. His account records in detail how the would-be assassin was executed: "dragged asunder, then beheaded, and his body divided into three parts; each part was then dragged through one of the principal cities of England, and was afterwards hung on a gibbet used for robbers."<ref>{{Harvnb|Giles|1852|p=139}}</ref>{{refn|group=nb|"''<!-- Quo cognito -->Rex eum, quasi regiae majestatis (occisorem), membratim laniatum equis apud Coventre, exemplum terribile et spectaculum comentabile praebere (iussit) omnibus audentibus talia machinari. Primo enim distractus, postea decollatus et corpus in tres partes divisum est.''"<ref>{{Harvnb|Bellamy|2004|p=23}}</ref>}} He was apparently sent by [[William de Marisco]], an outlaw who some years earlier had killed a man under royal protection before fleeing to [[Lundy Island]]. De Marisco was captured in 1242 and on Henry's order dragged from Westminster to the [[Tower of London]] to be executed. There he was hanged from a [[gibbet]] until dead. His corpse was disembowelled, his entrails burned, his body quartered, and the parts distributed to cities across the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lewis|Paris|1987|p=234}}</ref> The punishment is more frequently recorded during [[Edward I of England|Edward I]]'s reign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Diehl|Donnelly|2009|p=58}}</ref>
[[中世盛期]]のイングランドにおいては、反逆罪を犯した者は引きずり刑や絞首刑などの様々な方法で罰せられた。13世紀には、内臓抉り、火炙り、斬首、四つ裂きなどのより残忍な刑罰が導入された。13世紀のイギリスの歴史家{{仮リンク|マシュー・パリス|en|Matthew Paris}}は、1238年に[[ヘンリー3世 (イングランド王)|ヘンリー3世]]を暗殺しようとした「とある武装した学のある男（大郷士の資格を持つ学者、armiger literatus{{sfn|Powicke|1949|pp=54?58}}）」のことを記録している。この中で暗殺者は「引きずり刑を受けてバラバラになった後、斬首され、その死体は3つに分けられた。それらはイングランドの主要都市に一つずつ引きずり回された上で、強盗に使われる晒し台に吊るされた」と、どのように処刑されたかを詳細に残している{{sfn|Giles|1852|p=139}}{{refn|group=nb|"''<!-- Quo cognito -->Rex eum, quasi regiae majestatis (occisorem), membratim laniatum equis apud Coventre, exemplum terribile et spectaculum comentabile praebere (iussit) omnibus audentibus talia machinari. Primo enim distractus, postea decollatus et corpus in tres partes divisum est.''"{{sfn|Bellamy|2004|p=23}}}}。この暗殺者は王室の庇護下にあった男を殺してランディ島へ逃亡した無法者ウィリアム・デ・マリスコ（William de Marisco）によって送られた者と思われた。デ・マリスコは1242年に捕らえられ、王命により[[ウェストミンスター]]から[[ロンドン塔]]へ引きずり刑を受けた後に、そこで処刑された。まず、絞首刑に処されて死亡が確認された後、内蔵をえぐり出され、焼かれ、そして四つ裂きにされ、それら死体の断片はイングランドの主要都市に送られた。こうした刑罰は[[エドワード1世 (イングランド王)|エドワード1世]]の時代に、より頻繁に記録が残っている{{sfn|Diehl|Donnelly|2009|p=58}}。
The [[Welsh people|Welsh]] Prince [[Dafydd ap Gruffydd]] became the first nobleman in England to be hanged, drawn, and quartered after he turned against the king and proclaimed himself [[Prince of Wales]] and Lord of Snowdon.<ref>{{Harvnb|Beadle|Harrison|2008|p=11}}</ref> Dafydd's rebellion infuriated Edward I so much that he demanded a novel punishment. Therefore, following his capture and trial in 1283, for his betrayal he was drawn by horse to his place of execution. For killing English nobles, he was hanged alive. For killing those nobles at Easter, he was eviscerated and his entrails burned. For conspiring to kill the king in various parts of the realm, his body was quartered and the parts sent across the country; his head was placed on top of the Tower of London.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bellamy|2004|pp=23–26}}</ref> In 1305,<!-- this date not cited but uncontroversial, in fact it's in Bellamy 2004 p29 --> [[Scottish people|Scottish]] knight [[William Wallace|Sir William Wallace]], a main leader of the [[First War of Scottish Independence]], was punished in a similar manner. He was forced to wear a crown of laurel leaves and was drawn to [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]], where he was hanged and beheaded. His entrails were then burned and his corpse quartered, while his head was set on [[London Bridge]] and the quarters sent to [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]], [[Berwick-upon-Tweed|Berwick]], [[Stirling]], and [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Murison|2003|pp=147–149}}</ref>
ウェールズの{{仮リンク|ダヴィズ・アプ・グリフィズ|en|Dafydd ap Gruffydd}}は国王に反旗を翻し、[[プリンス・オブ・ウェールズ|ウェールズ王子]]とスノードン公を名乗ったが、捕らえられ、首吊り・内臓抉り・四つ裂きの刑を受けた最初のイングランドの貴族となった{{sfn|Beadle|Harrison|2008|p=11}}。ダヴィズの反乱はエドワード1世を激怒させ、過去に例のない厳罰を要求した。この結果、1283年の彼の拘束と裁判の後、まず反逆罪で馬による引きずり回し刑で処刑場へと連行された。そしてイングランドの貴族を殺した罪により生かされたまま首を吊られた。次にその貴族殺しを復活祭に行った罪により、内臓抉り及び、取り出した臓物を焼く刑が執行された。そして、国中の様々な場所で王殺しを企てた罪により、その遺体は四つ裂きにされて国中に送られ、頭部はロンドン塔の上部に置かれた{{sfn|Bellamy|2004|pp=23?26}}。同様の運命を辿って苦しみを与えられたのがスコットランド反乱の指導者であった[[ウィリアム・ウォレス]]であった。1305年に捕らえられ裁判にかけられた彼は月桂樹の王冠を被らされて晒し者にされた後、平民に対する処刑地であった[[スミスフィールド]]への引きずり回しを受け、そこで絞首刑にされて断首された。その後、取り出された内蔵が焼かれ、四つ裂きにされた。頭部はロンドン橋にて晒し首となり、残りの部位は[[ニューカッスル・アポン・タイン|ニューカッスル]]、[[ベリック・アポン・ツイード|ベリック]]、[[スターリング (スコットランド)|スターリング]]、[[パース (スコットランド)|パース]]に送られた{{sfn|Murison|2003|pp=147-149}}。
=== 1351年反逆法 ===
{{Main|{{仮リンク|1351年反逆法|en|Treason Act 1351}}}}
[[File:King Edward III from NPG.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Edward III of England|Edward III]], under whose rule the [[Treason Act 1351]] was enacted. It defined in law what constituted [[High treason in the United Kingdom|high treason]].]]
[[File:King Edward III from NPG.jpg|thumb|upright|[[エドワード3世 (イングランド王)|エドワード3世]]は、その治世下において1351年に反逆法を制定した。これは大逆罪の構成要件を法律で定めたものであった。]]
These and other executions, such as those of [[Andrew Harclay, 1st Earl of Carlisle]],<ref>{{Citation | last = Summerson | first = Henry | title = Harclay, Andrew, earl of Carlisle (c.1270–1323) | work = Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | origyear = 2004 | year = 2008 | url = http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/12235 | doi = 10.1093/ref:odnb/12235}} {{ODNBsub}}</ref> and [[Hugh Despenser the Younger]],<ref>{{Citation | last = Hamilton | first = J. S. | title = Despenser, Hugh, the younger, first Lord Despenser (d. 1326) | volume = 1 | work = Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher = Oxford University Press| origyear = 2004 | year = 2008 | url = http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/7554 | doi = 10.1093/ref:odnb/7554 | url-status = live | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924161850/http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/7554 | archivedate = 24 September 2015 | df = dmy-all }} {{ODNBsub}}</ref> which each occurred during [[Edward II of England|Edward II]]'s reign, happened when acts of treason in England, and their punishments, were not clearly defined in [[common law]].{{refn|group="nb"|Treason before 1351 was defined by [[Alfred the Great]]'s [[Doom book]]. As Patrick Wormald wrote, "if anyone plots against the king's life ... [''or'' his lord's life], he is liable for his life and all that he owns ... or to clear himself by the king's [lord's] wergeld."<ref>{{Harvnb|Wormald|2001|pp=280–281}}</ref>}} Treason was based on an allegiance to the sovereign from all subjects aged 14 or over, and it remained for the king and his judges to determine whether that allegiance had been broken.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tanner|1940|p=375}}</ref> [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]'s justices had offered somewhat overzealous interpretations of what activities constituted treason, "calling felonies treasons and afforcing indictments by talk of accroachment of the royal power",<ref name="Bellamyp9">{{Harvnb|Bellamy|1979|p=9}}</ref> prompting parliamentary demands to clarify the law. Edward therefore introduced the Treason Act 1351. It was enacted at a time in English history when a monarch's [[right to rule]] was indisputable and was therefore written principally to protect the throne and sovereign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tanner|1940|pp=375–376}}</ref> The new law offered a narrower definition of treason than had existed before and split the old feudal offence into two classes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bellamy|1979|pp=9–10}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Dubber|2005|p=25}}</ref> [[Petty treason]] referred to the killing of a master (or lord) by his servant, a husband by his wife, or a prelate by his clergyman. Men guilty of petty treason were drawn and hanged, whereas women were [[Burning of women in England|burned]].{{refn|group="nb"|Women were considered the legal property of their husbands,<ref>{{Harvnb|Caine|Sluga|2002|pp=12–13}}</ref> and so a woman convicted of killing her husband was guilty not of murder, but petty treason. For disrupting the social order a degree of retribution was therefore required; hanging was considered insufficient for such a heinous crime.<ref name="Briggsp84"/>}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Blackstone et al.|1832|pp=156–157}}</ref>
[[エドワード2世 (イングランド王)|エドワード2世]]の時代に起きた{{仮リンク|アンドリュー・ハークレイ|label=アンドリュー・ハークレイ（カーライル伯爵）|en|Andrew Harclay, 1st Earl of Carlisle}}<ref>{{Citation | last = Summerson | first = Henry | title = Harclay, Andrew, earl of Carlisle (c.1270?1323) | work = Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher = Oxford University Press, hosted at oxforddnb.com | origyear = 2004 | year = 2008 | url = http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/12235 | accessdate = 18 August 2010 | doi = 10.1093/ref:odnb/12235}} {{ODNBsub}}</ref>や[[ヒュー・ル・ディスペンサー (小ディスペンサー)|ヒュー・ル・ディスペンサー]]<ref>{{Citation | last = Hamilton | first = J. S. | title = Despenser, Hugh, the younger, first Lord Despenser (d. 1326) | volume = 1 | work = Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher = Oxford University Press, hosted at oxforddnb.com | origyear = 2004 | year = 2008 | url = http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/7554 | accessdate = 19 August 2010 | doi = 10.1093/ref:odnb/7554 | url-status = live | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924161850/http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/7554 | archivedate = 24 September 2015 | df = dmy-all }} {{ODNBsub}}</ref>などの処刑は、反逆行為に対する刑罰がまだコモンローで明確に定義されていない時代に起こったものであった{{sfn|Wormald|2001|pp=280?281}}。反逆罪は14歳以上のすべての臣下の君主に対する忠誠を基準とし、その忠誠が破られたかどうかを判断するのは国王と王の裁判官に委ねられていた{{sfn|Tanner|1940|p=375}}。[[エドワード3世 (イングランド王)|エドワード3世]]下の裁判官はどのような行為が反逆罪を構成するかについて、やや大袈裟な解釈を行い、「反逆を重罪と名付け、王権への侵犯として起訴する」としていたために{{sfn|Bellamy|1979|p=9}}、議会から法の明確化を求める声が挙がっていた。このためにエドワード3世は1351年に反逆法（1351年反逆法）を制定した。この法はイギリスの歴史の中でも君主の統治権に対するいかなる嫌疑もない時代に制定されたものであったため、したがって主に君主を保護するために書かれたものであった{{sfn|Tanner|1940|pp=375?376}}。新しい法律は以前に存在していた反逆罪の定義を狭め、古い封建的な犯罪を2つに分類した{{sfn|Bellamy|1979|pp=9?10}}{{sfn|Dubber|2005|p=25}}。この内、一般の反逆罪は召使いが主人（または領主）を殺した場合、妻が夫を殺した場合、聖職者が（自らの上役の）高位聖職者を殺した場合を指し、この場合、男は絞首刑に、女は火炙りにされた{{refn|group="nb"|Women were considered the legal property of their husbands,<ref>{{sfn|Caine|Sluga|2002|pp=12?13}}</ref> and so a woman convicted of killing her husband was guilty not of murder, but petty treason. For disrupting the social order a degree of retribution was therefore required; hanging was considered insufficient for such a heinous crime.{{sfn|Briggs|1996|p=84}}}}{{sfn|Blackstone et al.|1832|pp=156?157}}。
一方は大逆罪であり、個人が犯しうる最も重い罪と定義された。王の権威を貶めようとする試みは被告人が国王に直接危害を加えたものと同等に重大なものと見なされ、それ自体が主権者である国王の地位への攻撃であり、統治権に対する直接的な脅威となる。これは国家を弱体化させるおそれがあるために報復が絶対的に必要なものであり、よってその刑罰は究極のものでなければならないと考えられていた{{sfn|Foucault|1995|pp=47-49}}。したがって、2つの反逆罪の実質的な違いは有罪判決を受けた後にあった。男は単なる絞首刑ではなく、首吊り・内臓抉り・四つ裂きの刑に処され、女は公序良俗の観点（女性の身体を解体することは刑罰として不適切と見なされた）から、首吊り 及び・火炙りとされた{{sfn|Briggs|1996|p=84}}{{sfn|Naish|1991|p=9}}。 ▼[[High treason in the United Kingdom|High treason]] was the most egregious offence an individual could commit. Attempts to undermine the king's authority were viewed with as much seriousness as if the accused had attacked him personally, which itself would be an assault on his status as sovereign and a direct threat to his right to govern. As this might undermine the state, retribution was considered an absolute necessity and the crime deserving of the ultimate punishment.<ref>{{Harvnb|Foucault|1995|pp=47–49}}</ref> The practical difference between the two offences therefore was in the consequence of being convicted; rather than being drawn and hanged, men were to be hanged, drawn, and quartered, while for reasons of public decency (their anatomy being considered inappropriate for the sentence), women were instead drawn and burned.<ref name="Briggsp84">{{Harvnb|Briggs|1996|p=84}}</ref><ref name="Naishp9">{{Harvnb|Naish|1991|p=9}}</ref>
▲一方は大逆罪であり、個人が犯しうる最も重い罪と定義された。王の権威を貶めようとする試みは被告人が国王に直接危害を加えたものと同等に重大なものと見なされ、それ自体が主権者である国王の地位への攻撃であり、統治権に対する直接的な脅威となる。これは国家を弱体化させるおそれがあるために報復が絶対的に必要なものであり、よってその刑罰は究極のものでなければならないと考えられていた{{sfn|Foucault|1995|pp=47-49}}。したがって、2つの反逆罪の実質的な違いは有罪判決を受けた後にあった。男は単なる絞首刑ではなく、首吊り・内臓抉り・四つ裂きの刑に処され、女は公序良俗の観点（女性の身体を解体することは刑罰として不適切と見なされた）から、首吊り及び火炙りとされた{{sfn|Briggs|1996|p=84}}{{sfn|Naish|1991|p=9}}。
The Act declared that a person had committed high treason if they were:<ref name="Bellamyp9"/>
*compassing or imagining the death of the king, his wife or his eldest son and heir;
*violating the king's wife, his eldest daughter if she were unmarried, or the wife of his eldest son and heir;
*levying war against the king in his [[realm]];
*adhering to the king's enemies in his realm, giving them aid and comfort in his realm or elsewhere;
*counterfeiting the [[Great Seal of the Realm|Great Seal]] or the [[Privy Seal]], or the king's coinage;
*knowingly importing counterfeit money;
*killing the [[Lord Chancellor|Chancellor]], [[Lord High Treasurer|Treasurer]] or one of the king's Justices while performing their offices.
この法では以下の場合に大逆罪を犯したとみなした{{sfn|Bellamy|1979|p=9}}。
* 故意に偽造貨幣を国内に持ち込む。
* [[大法官]]や{{仮リンク|大蔵卿 (イギリス)|label=大蔵卿|en|Lord High Treasurer}}、国王の裁判官をその執政中に殺害する。
The Act did not limit the king's authority in defining the scope of treason. It contained a proviso giving English judges discretion to extend that scope whenever required, a process more commonly known as [[constructive treason]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bellamy|1979|pp=10–11}}</ref>{{refn|group="nb"|"And because that many other like cases of treason may happen in time to come, which a man cannot think nor declare at this present time; it is accorded, that if any other case supposed treason, which is not above specified, doth happen before any justice, the justice shall tarry without going to judgement of treason, till the cause be shewed and declared before the king and his parliament, whether it ought to be judged treason or other felony." [[Edward Coke]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Coke|Littleton|Hargrave|1817|pp=20–21}}</ref>}} It also applied to subjects overseas in [[British colonization of the Americas|British colonies in the Americas]], but the only documented incident of an individual there being hanged, drawn, and quartered was that of Joshua Tefft, an English colonist accused of having fought on the side of the [[Narragansett people|Narragansett]] during the [[Great Swamp Fight]]. He was executed in January 1676.<ref>{{Citation|last=Anthony |first=A. Craig |title=Local Historian Examines the Execution of Joshua Tefft at Smith's Castle in 1676 |journal=Castle Chronicle |year=2001 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=1, 8–9 |url=http://www.smithscastle.org/whats_new/Castle_chron/castle_chron_w01.pdf |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321053412/http://www.smithscastle.org/whats_new/Castle_chron/castle_chron_w01.pdf |archivedate=21 March 2014 }}</ref> Later sentences resulted either in a pardon or a hanging.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|2009|p=56}}</ref>
この法律は反逆罪の範囲を定義する際の国王の権限を制限するものではなかった。この法律にはイングランドの裁判官が必要に応じてその範囲を拡大できる裁量権を与える旨の条項が含まれており、これはより一般的には擬制的反逆罪（[[:en:Constructive treason|Constructive treason]]）として知られているものであった{{sfn|Bellamy|1979|pp=10?11}}{{refn|group="nb"|"And because that many other like cases of treason may happen in time to come, which a man cannot think nor declare at this present time; it is accorded, that if any other case supposed treason, which is not above specified, doth happen before any justice, the justice shall tarry without going to judgement of treason, till the cause be shewed and declared before the king and his parliament, whether it ought to be judged treason or other felony." [[Edward Coke]]{{sfn|Coke|Littleton|Hargrave|1817|pp=20?21}}}}。これはイギリスの海外植民地時代のアメリカ大陸の臣民にも適用された。ここで首吊り・内臓抉り・四つ裂きの刑に処されたと記録に残っている唯一の事例は、{{仮リンク|大沼の戦い|en|Great Swamp Fight}}において[[ナラガンセット]]側で戦ったと告発されたイギリス人入植者ジョシュア・テフトの事件であった。彼は1676年1月に処刑された<ref>{{Citation|last=Anthony |first=A. Craig |title=Local Historian Examines the Execution of Joshua Tefft at Smith's Castle in 1676 |journal=Castle Chronicle |year=2001 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=1, 8?9 |url=http://www.smithscastle.org/whats_new/Castle_chron/castle_chron_w01.pdf |accessdate=20 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321053412/http://www.smithscastle.org/whats_new/Castle_chron/castle_chron_w01.pdf |archivedate=21 March 2014 }}</ref>。これより後に起こった反逆罪に対する判決は、恩赦または絞首刑であった{{sfn|Ward|2009|p=56}}。
=== 1695年反逆法 ===
{{Main|{{仮リンク|1695年反逆法|en|Treason Act 1695}}}}
[[Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham]] was executed on 17 May 1521 for the crime of treason. The wording of his sentence has survived and indicates the precision with which the method of execution was described; he was to be "laid on a hurdle and so drawn to the place of execution, and there to be hanged, cut down alive, your members to be cut off and cast in the fire, your bowels burnt before you, your head smitten off, and your body quartered and divided at the King's will, and God have mercy on your soul."<ref>{{citation|last=Smith|first=Lacey B. |year=1954|title=English Treason Trials and Confessions in the Sixteenth Century|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas|volume=15|issue= 4 |date=October 1954|pages=471–498}} p. 484.</ref>
[[エドワード・スタッフォード (第3代バッキンガム公爵)|第3代バッキンガム公爵エドワード・スタッフォード]]は、反逆罪によって1521年5月17日に処刑された。彼への判決の宣告文は残っており、そこにはその処刑方法が具体的に残っている。彼は「ハードルに寝かされて処刑場へ引き回され、首を吊られた後、まだ生きているうちに切り落とされ、あなたの四肢は切断されて火の中に投げ込まれ、あなたの腸はあなたの前で焼かれ、あなたの頭は落とされ、あなたの身体は王命により四つ裂きにされ、あなたの魂に神の御加護がありますように」<ref>Smith, Lacey, B. (1954) ''English Treason Trials and Confessions in the Sixteenth Century'', Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Oct., 1954), pp. 471?498 Published by: University of Pennsylvania Press, p. 484.</ref>。
The original 1351 Act required only one witness to convict a person of treason, although in 1547 this was increased to two. Suspects were first questioned in private by the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] before they were publicly tried. They were allowed no witnesses or defence [[counsel]], and were generally presumed guilty from the outset. This meant that for centuries anyone accused of treason was severely legally disadvantaged, a situation which lasted until the late 17th century, when several years of politically motivated treason charges made against [[Whig (British political party)|Whig]] politicians prompted the introduction of the Treason Act 1695.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tomkovicz|2002|p=6}}</ref> This allowed a defendant counsel, witnesses, a copy of the indictment, and a jury, and when not charged with an attempt on the monarch's life, to be prosecuted within three years of the alleged offence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Feilden|2009|pp=6–7}}</ref>
1351年の法では反逆罪で有罪判決を下すのに必要な証人は1人でよいとされていたが、1547年に2人に増やされた。容疑者は公の場で裁かれる前に、まず枢密院にて非公開で尋問された。これには無実を証明する証人や弁護人の立席は許されず、通常は最初から有罪と推定されていた。このため、何世紀にもわたって反逆罪で告発された容疑者は法的に著しく不利な立場にあり、この状況は17世紀後半まで続いた。この時代、ホイッグ党の政治家に対する政治的動機からの反逆罪の告発が数年間にわたって頻発したため、1695年反逆法の制定に繋がった<ref>{{Harvnb|Tomkovicz|2002|p=6}}</ref>。これにより、被告人の弁護人、証人、起訴状の写し、陪審員が認められ、君主の命を狙った罪での起訴以外では、告発された犯罪が3年以内のものに限定されるようになった<ref>{{Harvnb|Feilden|2009|pp=6?7}}</ref>。
|
