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[[File:Henry Fonda and Bette Davis in Jezebel trailer.jpg|thumb|250px|Bette Davis and [[Henry Fonda]] in ''[[Jezebel (film)|Jezebel]]'' (1938), one of the quintessential woman's films. Davis plays a [[Southern belle]] who loses her fiancé (Fonda) and her social standing when she defies conventions. She redeems herself by self-sacrifice.<ref>[[Jeanine Basinger|Basinger, Jeanine]]. ''Jezebel''. Audio commentary, 2006 DVD re-issue.</ref>]]
The '''woman's film''' is a [[film genre]] which includes women-centered narratives, female protagonists and is designed to appeal to a female audience. Woman's films usually portray "women's concerns" such as problems revolving around domestic life, the family, motherhood, self-sacrifice, and [[Romance (love)|romance]].{{sfn|Doane|1987|pp=152–53}} These films were produced from the [[Silent film|silent era]] through the 1950s and early 1960s, but were most popular in the 1930s and 1940s, reaching their zenith during [[World War II]]. Although [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] continued to make films characterized by some of the elements of the traditional woman's film in the second half of the 20th century, the term itself disappeared in the 1960s. The work of directors [[George Cukor]], [[Douglas Sirk]], [[Max Ophüls]], and [[Josef von Sternberg]] has been associated with the woman's film genre.<ref>{{cite book | last = Heung | first = Marina | authorlink = | editor1-first = Angela | editor1-last = Howard | editor2-first = Frances M. | editor2-last = Kevenik | title = Handbook of American Women's History | url = | publisher = Garland | location = New York | year = 1990 | chapter = | chapterurl = | isbn = 978-0-8240-8744-9 }}</ref> [[Joan Crawford]], [[Bette Davis]], and [[Barbara Stanwyck]] were some of the genre's most prolific [[movie star|stars]].{{sfn|Basinger|2010|p=163}}
The beginnings of the genre can be traced back to [[D. W. Griffith]]'s silent films. [[Film historian]]s and critics defined the genre and canon in retrospect. Before the woman's film became an established genre in the 1980s, many of the classic woman's films were referred to as [[Melodrama#Film|melodrama]]s.
Woman's films are films that were made ''for'' women by predominantly male screenwriters and directors whereas [[women's cinema]] encompasses films that have been made ''by'' women.{{sfn|Ashby|2010|p=153}}
==Definition==
[[File:Mildred-Pierce-One-Sheet.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Mildred Pierce (film)|Mildred Pierce]]'' (1945) embraced elements of the woman's film and [[film noir]]: a narrative focus on domestic life, motherhood, and a female point of view set off by stark light/dark contrasts and dramatic shadow patterning, [[Flashback (narrative)|flashbacks]], and a [[Pessimism|pessimistic]] tone.{{sfn|Langford|2005|p=48}}]]
When the woman's film was still at a nascent stage, it was not regarded as a fully independent genre.{{sfn|Altman|1998|p=29}} [[Mary Ann Doane]], for example, argued that the woman's film is not a "pure genre" because it is crossed and informed by a number of other genres such as melodrama, [[film noir]], the gothic, and [[horror film]].<ref>Doane cited in Altman 1998, pp. 28–29.</ref> Similarly, film scholar Scott Simmon argues that the woman's film has remained "elusive" to the point of having its very existence questioned. This elusiveness, he argues, is partially due to the fact that the woman's film is an oppositional genre which can only be defined in opposition to male-centered genres like the [[Western (genre)|Western]] and [[Mob film|gangster film]].{{sfn|Simmon|1993|p=68}} It has also been noted that it is a critically rather than industrially constructed genre, having been defined in retrospect rather than at the time of the films' production.{{sfn|Altman|1998|p=28}} The woman's film was seen as closely related to and even synonymous with melodrama.<ref name="modleski">Modleski, Tania (1984). [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1225094 "Time and Desire in the Woman's Film"]. ''[[Cinema Journal]]'' '''23''' (3): 19–30.</ref> Other terms commonly used to describe the woman's film were "drama", "romance", "love story", "comedy drama", and "soap opera".<ref>Neale, Stephen (1993). "Melo Talk: On the Meaning and Use of the Term 'Melodrama' in the American Trade Press". ''[[Velvet Light Trap|The Velvet Light Trap]]'' '''32''' (3): 66–89.</ref> Since the late 1980s, the woman's film has been an established film genre.{{sfn|Altman|1998|p=32}} Film scholar Justine Ashby, however, has observed a trend in [[Cinema of the United Kingdom|British cinema]] that she calls "generic eclipse" whereby films that adhere to all the fundamental tenets of the woman's film are subsumed under other genres. ''[[Millions Like Us]]'' (1943) and ''[[Two Thousand Women]]'' (1944), for example, have been described and promoted as war films rather than woman's films.{{sfn|Ashby|2010|p=155}}
The woman's film differs from other film genres in that it is primarily addressed to women.{{sfn|Doane|1987|p=3}} Cinema historian [[Jeanine Basinger]] argues that the first of three purposes of the woman’s film is "to place a woman at the center of the story universe".{{sfn|Basinger|1994|p=13}} In most other and particularly men-oriented film genres the opposite is the case as women and their concerns have been assigned minor roles. [[Molly Haskell]] explains that "if a woman hogs this universe unrelentingly, it is perhaps her compensation for all the male-dominated universes from which she has been excluded: the gangster film, the western, the war film, the policier, the rodeo film, the [[adventure film]]".{{sfn|Haskell|1987|p=155}} The second purpose of the woman's film, according to Basinger, is "to reaffirm in the end the concept that a woman's true job is that of being a woman". A romantic ideal of [[love]] is presented as the only "career" that will guarantee happiness and that women should aspire to.{{sfn|Basinger|1994|p=13}} The third purpose of the genre, as suggested by Basinger, is "to provide a temporary visual liberation of some sort, however small – an escape into a purely romantic love, into sexual awareness, into luxury, or into the rejection of the female role".{{sfn|Basinger|1994|p=13}} Basinger argues that the major – if not only – action of the woman's film and its biggest source of drama and tragedy is the necessity to make a choice.{{sfn|Basinger|1994|p=19}} The heroine will have to decide between two or more paths that are equally appealing but mutually exclusive as, for example, romantic love and a fulfilling job. One path will be right and consistent with the film’s overall morality and the other path will be wrong but it will provide liberation. As the films' heroines were punished for following the wrong path and ultimately reconciled to their roles as women, wives, and mothers, Basinger argues that woman's films "cleverly contradict themselves" and "easily reaffirm the status quo for the woman's life while providing little releases, small victories or even big releases, big victories".{{sfn|Basinger|1994|p=10}}
==Identifying characteristics==
Unlike male-centered movies which are frequently shot outdoors, most woman's films are set in the [[Separate spheres|domestic sphere]],{{sfn|Walsh|1986|p=24}} which defines the lives and roles of the female protagonist.{{sfn|Neale|2000|p=181}} Whereas the events in woman's films – weddings, proms, births – are [[socialization|socially]] defined by nature and society, the action in male films – chasing criminals, participating in a fight – is story-driven.{{sfn|Basinger|1994|p=9}}
The themes in woman's and male-oriented films are often diametrically opposed: fear of separation from loved ones, emphasis on emotions, and human attachment in women's films, as opposed to fear of intimacy, repressed emotionality, and individuality in male-oriented movies.{{sfn|Walsh|1986|p=24}} The plot conventions of woman's films revolve around several basic themes: love triangles, unwed motherhood, illicit affairs, the rise to power, and mother-daughter relationships.{{sfn|Basinger|2010|pp=163, 166}} The narrative pattern depends on the activity engaged in by the heroine and commonly includes sacrifice, affliction, choice, and competition.{{sfn|Haskell|1987|p=157}} The maternal melodrama, the career woman comedy, and the paranoid woman's film, a subgenre based on suspicion and distrust, are the most frequent subgenres.{{sfn|Walsh|1986|p=125}} Female madness, [[depression (mood)|depression]], [[hysteria]], and [[amnesia]] were frequent plot elements in Hollywood's woman's films of the 1940s. This trend took place when Hollywood tried to incorporate aspects of [[psychoanalysis]]. In the medical discourse in films like ''[[Now, Voyager]]'' (1942), ''[[Possessed (1947 film)|Possessed]]'' (1947) and ''[[Johnny Belinda (1948 film)|Johnny Belinda]]'' (1948), mental health is visually represented by beauty and mental illness by an unkept appearance; health was restored if the female protagonist improved her appearance.{{sfn|Doane|1986|pp=153, 155}} [[Friendship]] among women was fairly common,{{sfn|Langford|2005|p=45}} although the treatment was superficial and focused more on women's dedication to men and female-male relationships than on their friendships with each other.{{sfn|Hollinger|1998|pp=36–40}}
[[File:Annex - Stanwyck, Barbara (Stella Dallas) 01.jpg|thumb|200px|In [[King Vidor]]'s ''[[Stella Dallas (1937 film)|Stella Dallas]]'' (1937), Barbara Stanwyck plays a [[Working class|working-class]] mother who sacrifices her connection to her daughter in order to help her become part of an [[Upper class|upper-class]] world.{{sfn|Langford|2005|p=46}}]]
The woman's films that were produced in the 1930s during the [[Great Depression]] have a strong thematic focus on [[Social class|class]] issues and questions of economic survival whereas the 1940s woman's film places its protagonists in a middle- or upper-middle-class world and is more concerned with the characters' emotional, sexual, and psychological experiences.{{sfn|McKee|2014|pp=24–25}}
The female protagonist is portrayed as either good or bad.{{sfn|Basinger|2010|p=164}} Haskell distinguishes three types of women that are particularly common to woman’s films: the extraordinary, ordinary and the "ordinary woman who becomes extraordinary". The extraordinary women are characters like [[Scarlett O'Hara]] and [[Jezebel (film)|Jezebel]] who are played by equally extraordinary actresses like [[Vivien Leigh]] and Bette Davis. They are independent and emancipated "aristocrats of their sex" who transcend the limitations of their sexual identities. The ordinary women, in contrast, are bound by the rules of their respective societies because their range of options is too limited to break free of their limitations. The ordinary woman who becomes extraordinary is a character who "begins as a victim of discriminatory circumstances and rises, through pain, obsession, or defiance, to become mistress of her fate."{{sfn|Haskell|1987|pp=160–61}} Depending on the type of heroine a film champions, a film can be either socially conservative or progressive.{{sfn|Hollinger|1998|p=28}} Certain archetypal characters appear in many woman's films: unreliable husbands, the other man, a female competitor, the reliable friend, usually an older woman, and the sexless male, frequently depicted as an older man who offers the protagonist security and luxury but makes no sexual demands on her.{{sfn|Basinger|2010|pp=165–66}}
A common motif in Hollywood's woman's films is that of the [[doppelgänger]] sisters (often played by the same actress), one good and one bad who vie for one man as [[Bette Davis]] in her double role in ''[[A Stolen Life (1946 film)|A Stolen Life]]'' (1946) and [[Olivia de Havilland]] in ''[[The Dark Mirror (film)|The Dark Mirror]]'' (1946).{{sfn|Simmon|1993|p=78}} The good woman is portrayed as passive, sweet, emotional, and asexual whereas the bad woman is assertive, intelligent, and erotic. The conflict between them is resolved with the defeat of the bad woman.<ref>Fischer, Lucy (1983). [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1225070 "Two-Faced Women: The 'Double' in Women's Melodrama of the 1940s"]. ''Cinema Journal'' '''23''' (1): 24–43.</ref> A central element of the 1980s British woman's film is the motif of escape. Woman's films allow their respective female protagonists to escape their everyday lives and their socially and sexually prescribed roles. The escape can take the form of a journey to another place such as the [[USSR]] in ''[[Letter to Brezhnev]]'' (1985) and [[Greece]] in ''[[Shirley Valentine (film)|Shirley Valentine]]'' (1989) or education as in ''[[Educating Rita (film)|Educating Rita]]'' (1983) and sexual initiation as in ''[[Wish You Were Here (1987 film)|Wish You Were Here]]'' (1987).{{sfn|Ashby|2010|p=155}}
==History==
The beginnings of the genre can be traced back to [[D. W. Griffith]] whose one- and two-reelers ''[[A Flash of Light]]'' (1910) and ''[[Her Awakening]]'' (1911) feature the trademark narratives of repression and resistance that would later define a majority of women's films.{{sfn|Simmon|1993|pp=68–69, 71}} Other predecessors of the genre include women-centered [[serial film]]s such as ''[[The Exploits of Elaine]]'' (1914) and ''[[Ruth of the Rockies]]'' (1920).{{sfn|Hollinger|2012|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=TA8iYChqyb0C&pg=PA36 36]}}
The woman's film genre was particularly popular in 1930s and 1940s, reaching its zenith during [[World War II]].<ref name="russel">Russel, Catherine (1994). [http://www.filmstudies.ca/journal/pdf/cj-film-studies32_Russell_mourning.pdf "Mourning the Woman's Film: The Dislocated Spectator in ''The Company of Stranger''"]. ''Canadian Journal of Film Studies'' '''3''' (2): 25–39.</ref> The film industry of that time had an economic interest in producing such films as women were believed to comprise a majority of movie-goers. In line with this perception, many woman's films were prestigious productions which attracted some of the best stars and directors.{{sfn|Langford|2005|p=45}} Some film scholars suggest that the genre as a whole was well-regarded within the film industry,{{sfn|Neale|2000|p=193}} while others argue that the genre and term "woman's film" had derogatory connotations and was used by critics to dismiss certain films.{{sfn|Haskell|1987|pp=154–55}}
Production of women's films dropped off in the 1950s as melodrama became more male-centered and as [[soap opera]]s began to appear on television.<ref name="russel"/> Although [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] continued to make films marked by some of the features and concerns of the traditional woman's film in the second half of the 20th century, the term itself disappeared in the 1960s.{{sfn|Neale|2000|p=184}}
The genre was revived in the early 1970s.<ref>{{cite book | last = Heung | first = Marina | authorlink = | editor-first = Lucy | editor-last = Fischer | title = Imitation of Life: Douglas Sirk, Director | url = | publisher = [[Rutgers University Press]] | location = [[New Brunswick, New Jersey]] | year = 1991 | chapter = 'What's the matter with Sarah Jane?': Daughters and Mothers in Douglas Sirk's ''Imitation of Life'' | chapterurl = http://books.google.com/books?id=NxHbph9wFJsC&pg=PA302 | isbn = 978-0-8135-1644-8 }}</ref> Attempts to create modern versions of the classic woman's film, updated to take account of new social norms, include [[Martin Scorsese]]'s ''[[Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore]]'' (1974), ''[[An Unmarried Woman]]'' (1978) by [[Paul Mazursky]], [[Garry Marshall]]'s ''[[Beaches (film)|Beaches]]'' (1988), and ''[[Fried Green Tomatoes (film)|Fried Green Tomatoes]]'' (1991) by [[Jon Avnet]]. Similarly, the 2002 films ''[[The Hours (film)|The Hours]]'' and ''[[Far from Heaven]]'' took their cues from the classic woman's film.{{sfn|Langford|2005|p=49}} Elements of the woman's film have reemerged in the modern [[horror film]] genre. Films such as [[Brian De Palma]]'s ''[[Carrie (1976 film)|Carrie]]'' (1976) and [[Ridley Scott]]'s ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' (1979) subvert traditional representations of femininity and refuse to follow the traditional marriage plot. The female protagonists in these movies are driven by something other than romantic love.{{sfn|Greven|2011|pp=91–140}}
Within [[Cinema of the United Kingdom|British cinema]], [[David Leland]] returned to the formula of the 1980s woman's film in ''[[The Land Girls (film)|The Land Girls]]'' (1998). The film tells the story of three young women during World War II and offers its heroines the opportunity to escape their old lives. ''[[Bend It Like Beckham]]'' (2002) emphasizes the key generic theme of female friendship and casts the heroine in a conflict between the restrictions of her traditional [[Sikh]] upbringing and her aspirations to become a [[Association football|football player]]. [[Lynne Ramsay]]'s ''[[Morvern Callar (film)|Morvern Callar]]'' is based on the woman's film tradition; a young woman escapes to Spain and pretends to be the author of her boyfriend's novel. While Morvern's journeys and transformations allow for liberation, she ends up where she started.{{sfn|Ashby|2010|pp=162, 163–65, 166–68}}
==Response==
Jeanine Basinger notes that woman's films were often criticized for reinforcing conventional values, above all, the notion that women could only find happiness in love, marriage and motherhood. However, she argues that they were "subtly subversive". They implied that a woman could not combine a career and a happy family life, but they also offered women a glimpse of a world outside the home, where they did not sacrifice their independence for marriage, housekeeping, and childrearing. The pictures depicted women with successful careers as journalists, pilots, car company presidents, and restaurateurs.{{sfn|Basinger|2010|p=163}} Similarly, Simmon notes that the genre offered a mixture of repression and liberation, in which repressive narratives are regularly challenged, partly via [[Mise en scène|mise-en-scène]] and acting but also by conflicts within the narratives themselves. He further states that such resistances were present in some of the earliest woman's films and became the rule with [[Douglas Sirk]]'s postwar American woman's films.{{sfn|Simmon|1993|p=71}} Others have argued, however, that the narratives of these films offer only the repressive perspective and that viewers must read the texts "against the grain" to be able to find a liberating message.{{sfn|Hollinger|1998|p=35}} Critics such as Haskell have criticized the term "woman's film" itself. She writes: <blockquote>What more damning comment on the relations between men and women in America than the very notion of something called the 'woman's film'? (...) A film that focuses on male relationships is not pejoratively dubbed a 'man's film' (...), but a 'psychological drama.'"{{sfn|Haskell|1987|p=154}}</blockquote>
Some woman's film have been met with critical acclaim. Woman's films that were selected for preservation in the United States [[National Film Registry]] as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" include ''[[It Happened One Night]]'' (1934), ''[[Imitation of Life (1934 film)|Imitation of Life]]'' (1934), ''[[Jezebel (film)|Jezebel]]'' (1938), ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' (1939), ''[[The Women (1939 film)|The Women]]'' (1939), ''[[The Lady Eve]]'' (1941), ''[[Now, Voyager]]'' (1942),<ref>LaPlace, Maria. "Producing and Consuming the Woman's Film: Discursive Struggle in Now, Voyager". In ''Home is where the Heart is: Studies in Melodrama and the Woman's Film'' by Christine Gledhill, London: British Film Institute, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85170-199-8.</ref> ''[[Mildred Pierce (film)|Mildred Pierce]]'' (1945), ''[[Letter from an Unknown Woman (1948 film)|Letter from an Unknown Woman]]'' (1948),<ref name="modleski"/> ''[[Adam's Rib]]'' (1949), ''[[All About Eve]]'' (1950), and ''[[All That Heaven Allows]]'' (1955).<ref>National Film Preservation Board. [http://www.loc.gov/film/titles.html "Films Selected to The National Film Registry, 1989–2010"]. ''[[Library of Congress]]'', accessed October 28, 2011.</ref>
==See also==
*[[Chick flick]]
*[[Romance film]]
*[[Women's cinema]]
==References==
;Notes
{{reflist|2}}
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}}
==External links==
*Hollinger, Karen Wallis (2014): [http://indigo.uic.edu/handle/10027/15696 ''Embattled voices: The narrator and the woman in film noir and the woman's film'']. Thesis submitted for a [[Doctor of Philosophy]] degree at the [[University of Illinois at Chicago]].
*Laing, Heather (2000): [http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/2320/ ''Wandering minds and anchored bodies: music, gender and emotion in melodrama and the woman's film'']. Thesis submitted for a Doctor of Philosophy degree at the [[University of Warwick]].
*Nash, Melanie Leigh (1994): [https://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/5684 ''The woman's film, the new women's cinema, and the women's buddy film'']. Thesis submitted for a [[Master of Arts]] degree at the [[University of British Columbia]].
{{Film genres}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Woman's Film}}
[[Category:Film genres]]
[[Category:Film styles]]
[[Category:Film theory]]
[[Category:History of film]]
[[Category:Women in film]]
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